Writing Examples
Minorities in U.S. Film and Television
This was the final research paper for an introductory Communications course at Alma College. It discusses the portrayal of various minorities in popular American television and film and calls attention to the stereotypes these powerful media form in our modern culture.
Minorities in U.S. Film and Television
by Kacie Schaeffer
Introduction
For over two hundred years, America has set itself apart from other lands, establishing itself as a great nation that values individuality, freedom, and the pursuit of happiness. Generations of people from an almost infinite number of backgrounds came to this great country seeking the chance to live in the spirit of such lofty ideals; in many cases, these travelers were subjected to prejudice and the stigma of popular and degrading stereotypes. Ultimately, these wicked ways were mended and in the modern, politically correct America, discrimination is a thing of the past.
Or is it?
As a mass media-dominated culture, typical U.S. citizens are bombarded with mail, television advertisements, radio programs, newspaper articles, Internet banners, and more. Each of these media carries with it distinct signals and clues as to our culture: our fashions, our habits, our values, and more. Sensing the superlative importance of these mundane media messages, some scholars have begun to question those that are embedded within our favorite television shows and hidden behind that great Silver Screen. Gutiérrez and Wilson sum up the qualms of their comrades nicely, stating:
In a media-dominated society, such as the United States, all of us depend on the media of communication to portray and define those things that we have not
personally experienced for ourselves. Thus, we "learn" about others through radio, television, movies, newspapers, and magazines. The portrayals and news coverage of... (minority) groups in these media can become reality in our minds, especially if we have no personal experiences to balance them against (Wilson and Gutiérrez, 1995, p. 34).
In truth, many believe that the television and film messages most Americans are subjected to on a daily basis do not portray minorities accurately, lending to the formation of damaging stereotypes by the Caucasian majority. In some cases, the group is invisible, portrayed rarely, if at all. Proponents of Black Americans, Italian Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, Arabs, and Jews maintain that their respective groups are misrepresented or underrepresented in U.S. television and film, leading to the formulation of negative or inaccurate stereotypes; their arguments are examined in the pages that follow.
Literature Review
Representations of Black Americans
Since the Civil Rights Movement of the 1970s, Hollywood has done more to integrate African Americans into film productions than any other mass medium in the country (Entman and Rojecki, 2000, p.182). Now perhaps the most widely depicted minority, Blacks have enjoyed screen time in a wide variety of television shows and cinematic features. While the increase in the creation of Black characters appeases many, it has led other scholars to complain bitterly about the ways in which Blacks are represented.
Scholars point out that European Americans are not familiar with Black sub-culture, and that "the lack of identification of White America with Black America hinges on the inability to communicate" (Hilliard, 2001, p. 83). They point out that Blacks are usually portrayed not within their own culture, but as beings that have been assimilated into the dominant Euro-American culture. This was demonstrated during the 1983-1984 sitcom season, in which Black males were almost exclusively portrayed in middle-class homes (Campbell, 1995, p. 22). Some have gone so far as to define a "new" racism, one which represents upper-middle class and wealthy Blacks, but in which the "conditions of life for poor or working-class Blacks are discounted or avoided" (Artz, 1998, p. 68). Truthfully, The Bill Cosby Show, NYPD Blue, Law & Order, and Homicide are all successful American television series that depict important, educated Black characters while ignoring the citizens of lower classes, lending to the criticism that "when audiences see African Americans on television it is nearly always within...'the framework of assimilationist assumptions that emphasize racial harmony and an open society'" (Campbell, 1995, p. 22).
Scholars who have observed Hollywood's portrayal of Black characters are likewise scandalized. The "blaxploitation" films of the 1970s often featured strong, rebellious superhero characters that were little more than Hollywood's modern-day characters repackaged "in imagery that glamorized the ghetto and elevated the pimp/outlaw/rebel to folk hero, while ignoring actual social conditions of Black life" (Artz, 1998, p. 69). Production studios were accused of playing "on the needs of Black audiences for heroic figures without answering those needs in realistic terms" (Artz, 1998, p. 70).
Eventually, blaxploitation films gave way to the "buddy" films of the next decade—the large-budget, interracial male-bonding movies that have continued to adorn our cinemas for the past twenty years. These films are extremely numerous and prevalent; Artz describes and sums up the concerns with "buddy" pictures, stating:
Black-White male bonding characterizes action-adventure movies of the 1980s and 90s: Carl Weathers warms to Sylvester Stallone in the Rocky series. Billy Dee Williams appears as Stallone's equal in Nighthawks (1982) and as a peer to the Star Wars heroes in The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983)...The most popular movies of this genre feature Eddie Murphy as the sarcastic leading buddy in 48 Hours (1982), Beverly Hills Cop (1984), and the sequels to each. Finally, in 1987, audiences were introduced to what must be the model interracial male team of the new age—Danny Glover and Mel Gibson as partner cops in Lethal Weapon. There are other examples of Hollywood's buddy genre—and there will be many more—because a public fascinated by and fearful of actual race relations needs the escapist fare pushed by major movie studios (Artz, 1998, p. 71).
Scholars clearly feel that American film and television show Black culture in a monotonous and shallow manner. As Artz further explains:
...Buddy movies effectively reinforce existing racial hegemony because couched within the myriad representations... of interracial images lies a clear message that presents the American status quo as preferred and natural... (T)hese interracial "buddy films" follow an identifiable format that can only be characterized as a narrative and visual "strategy of containment" that subordinates Black characters and images and "subtly reaffirms dominant society's traditional racial order" (Artz, 1998, p. 71).
While Blacks are in fact represented in American film and television, they are portrayed as one-dimensional characters which compounds "Whites' ignorance of Blacks variety and humanity" (Entman and Rojecki, 2000, p.182) and ultimately serves the purpose of reinforcing White values and glossing over the severe racial difficulties that are still prevalent in our society.
Representations of Italian Americans
Many critics have expressed "outrage and frustration over media images of Italian Americans as criminals or pasta-eating buffoons" (Carilli, 1998, p. 111), contending that "Italian Americans are media targets because cultural members 'pass' as White and theoretically have Mafia ties that protect them, thus allowing noncultural members to perceive Italian Americans as invincible and worthy of degradation..." (Carilli, 1998, p. 111). In truth, much of mainstream Hollywood depicts Italian Americans as gruff, violent, mobster types or as comical, overly-passionate and under-educated; Italian Americans reject these notions, preferring instead portrayals of their historically paradoxical nature, those which combine the "spontaneity, expressiveness, and mystery" (Carilli, 1998, p. 112) of their heritage to create a rich view of their culture.
Italian Americans often struggle against complete assimilation into American society, choosing instead to retain much of their Italian heritage. A few contemporary movies choose to portray this important cultural struggle, namely Raging Bull (1980), Saturday Night Fever (1977), Moonstruck (1987), Jungle Fever (1991), and My Cousin Vinny (1992). Often, the struggle portrayed in these films manifests itself in the characters acting deviant or crazy, either in violent verbal outbursts, overly dramatic and humorous monologues, or hilarious banter between characters.
Clearly, many representations of Italian Americans in U.S. film and television fall short of painting a well-rounded view of these people as a distinct and important sect within our country. The few movies that do portray themes of any value to Italian Americans speak to the struggles they encounter as they attempt to find their place within the melting pot that is America.
Representations of Asian Americans
Asian Americans are perhaps one of the most underrepresented groups in modern American film and television today. Very few Asian American actors appear on television or in film, and beginning with Mary Pickford in Madame Butterfly (1914), many well-known Caucasian actors and actresses have applied "yellow face," taking roles as Asians themselves. The fact that European Americans have played at being Asian well into the 1980s coupled with the degrading stereotypes of Asians in early film has left this group sorely misrepresented.
In early American film, Asian females were "typically cast as 'peasants, [subservient] geishas, dragon ladies, and exotic-erotics'" (Orbe et al., 1998, p. 126); male characters were "characterized as 'evil, sinister, diabolical, myopic, buck-toothed subhuman villains, or as passive and emasculated detectives" (Orbe et al., 1998, p. 126). Later, these stereotypes passed from cinemas into American homes via television. It was not until the 1960s heralded the release of Hong Kong and Hawaii Five-O that representations of Asian Americans increased—in these two television series, several Asian actors had recurring, albeit stereotypical roles. By the 1980s, "television shows such as Gung Ho, After Mash, St. Elsewhere, Tour of Duty, 21 Jumpstreet, and Ohara... included Asian characters in a wide variety of more 'realistic' roles" (Orbe et al., 1998, p. 126). However, scholars mainly view these later representations as exceptions to the rule rather than the norm, stating that the "(d)ecades of 'advances' in television programming have done little to lift media representations of Asian characters above stereotypical concoctions of mystery, crime, seduction, and subservience" (Orbe et al., 1998, p. 126).
Like many other minorities, Asian Americans are largely invisible in American media. With regards to other non-Anglo groups, Asians have "been assigned negative codes in television that stereotype them as classic outgroups, and affirm the Anglo American status as culturally superior" (Orbe et al., 1998, p. 126).
Representations of Native Americans
Another group that is traditionally overlooked and misjudged, Native Americans are very much an "invisible minority in the communication media of the United States" (Wilson and Gutiérrez, 1995, pp. 33-34). Contemporary American film and television rarely depicts modern Native Americans, clinging instead to the 19th century imagery of braves in feathers and war paint antagonizing hapless settlers in the classic Westerns that are a staple of our European American culture.
Today, the films and television series that do in fact portray Native Americans treat them as "savages who were vanquished by a superior people and civilization" (Wilson and Gutiérrez, 1995, p. 34). A popular stereotype that still prevails is that of the Native American as the "'natural,' ...(who is) more connected to and in tune with the environment than are those who are more 'civilized' and technologically advanced" (Morris and Stuckey, 1998, p. 137). Morris and Stuckey describe the damaging implications of this image on Native Americans:
As both closer to nature and more "primitive" than Euro-Americans, Native Americans are thus less "corrupt" and at the same time less "advanced" than the members of the dominant society; they retain their purity in the face of civilization and thereby represent a glorified image of a past that (is) being swept away before the onrush of societal change (Morris and Stuckey, 1998, pp. 137-138).
As a culture that is perpetually viewed according to history's teachings, Native Americans are "forever frozen, passive, forever acted on, now unable to initiate actions... (which perpetuates) their role as 'wards of the state' who are incapable of making their own decisions or managing their own resources" (Morris and Stuckey, 1998, p. 141).
It is clear that American media falls short of giving a voice to this group, instead choosing to ignore it completely or to portray it in such an unrealistic manner that the dominant culture feels justified in having conquered these people so many decades ago.
Representations of Arabs
Of the many minorities in the United States, Arabs fill an extremely stereotypical role in American cinema and television. Far from the true practices of the Middle East, Arabs are almost always portrayed as lecherous, bloodthirsty cutthroats:
Slave trader, camel driver, moneychanger, colourful scoundrel: these are some of the traditional Arab roles in the cinema. The Arab leader (of marauders, pirates, 'native' insurgents) can often be seen snarling at the captured Western hero and the blond girl (both of them steeped in wholesomeness), 'My men are going to kill you, but — they like to amuse themselves before.' He leers suggestively as he speaks: this is a current debasement of Valentino's Sheik (Ferguson, 1998, p. 71).
Arabs are also shown in droves when they do appear on the screen. They are consequently stripped of any individuality or humanity, taking on the characteristics of an anonymous, murderous, invading horde. They spring from the shadows at peaceful moments to "decapitate the beautiful heroine, kidnap the children, (and) burn the encampment..." (Dines and Humez, 1995, p. 21). To Americans, Arabs almost always represent "mass rage and misery, or irrational (hence hopelessly eccentric) gestures," behind which lurks the "menace of the jihad" (Ferguson, 1998, p. 71).
Obviously, American media portray Arabs in a ridiculously fictional way. Messages embedded within our films and television broadcasts are not only unrealistic, but they promote misunderstanding and hostility towards this unique culture.
Representations of Jews
Although traditionally the word "Jew" characterizes a person who practices Judaism and is often of Hebrew descent, it has come to be associated with an entire culture and way of life. As such, the Jews are often prone to stereotype in American film and television.
In media today, Jewish mothers are portrayed as brash, overbearing, and overprotective while their daughters are often characterized as Jewish American Princesses (JAPs)—"pampered, demanding, loud, (and) tasteless" as well as "smart, neurotic, and sexually undesirable" (Woodbury, 1998, p. 102). On popular television, Jewish men often court or marry gentile women, a fact which "denigrates Jewish women, because it makes them appear undesirable, and because almost never is the reverse seen" (Woodbury, 1998, p. 103).
A long list of terms defines the preconceived notions of Jewish men that many Americans hold through their experiences with such films as The Jazz Singer (1927), The Birdcage (1996), and Caddy Shack (1980): short, lustful, annoying, brooding, greedy, comical, useless and haughty are a few select descriptors. In fact, the "most common media stereotype depicts Jews as wealthy, grasping, and acquisitive, and Jewish culture as mainly materialistic" (Woodbury, 1998, p. 105). In the movie Dirty Dancing (1987), for example, "nearly all the Jewish characters are lacking social grace, and all the women, except the leading lady, (are) unpleasant JAP stereotypes" (Woodbury, 1998, pp. 105-106).
Until recently, these negative stereotypes of Jews have prevailed. However, the release of more recent works such as Schindler's List (1993) and The Pianist (2002) as well as television's Northern Exposure has broken some of these stereotypes and brought about renewed respect for those of the Jewish community.
Discussion
Perhaps the most frustrating part of researching minorities in media is that research is carried out via the same media channels that choose who and what is important in the America of today. The fact that television and movies seem to ignore several cultural groups in our country seems to be related to the rarity of articles and scholarly essays on minorities.
Black representations in film and on television currently seem to be of the most importance and interest as material was relatively easy to come by for this group. Essays concerning Jews and Jewish depictions in our popular culture were also fairly common. Much less can be said about other ethnic groups—Italian and Asian Americans are rarely discussed; and critical works by actual Arabian or Native American authors were impossible to find, leaving second-hand sources to describe the injustices our stereotypes do to these peoples' character. Including information on Latinos in American media was likewise hopeless, as very little solid research has been carried out with regards to this topic in conjunction with this group. It is because of the obscurity of these interracial texts that Kamalipour and Carilli must be commended for compiling an anthology that contains several essays on and written by those within the invisible minority groups in the U.S. This anthology is extremely useful to anybody who is interested in the topic of minorities in media and comes highly recommended.
When material relating to the topic at hand was discovered, it was very thorough, well-documented, and illuminative. Several of the authors reviewed feel similarly that U.S. film and television does little to provide an accurate and all-encompassing view of the cultures that define our America. These authors' arguments are solid, well-founded, and supported by examples from mainstream movies and television series. Entman and Rojecki, Hilliard, Artz, and Campbell made excellent claims that a communication gap exists between White and Black society, and that the dominant Caucasians do not understand any culture besides their own. Virtually all films and television series shown today subscribe to a basic formula; pieces pertaining to minorities do not differ from this tried and true method, but instead insert minority actors or actresses as the main characters, villains, or love interests. The result is a static, culturally barren work rife with White assimilationist attitudes that offers no helpful critique of or solution to the problems the different cultures within modern America are experiencing.
Blacks are not the only minorities to be engulfed by our Caucasian cultural imperialism; according to Orbe and Kang, Carilli, and Woodbury, Asians, Italians and Jews have very little identity within American-created films and television programs and are largely interchangeable cookie-cutter representations of each other. These races remain a step above Native Americans and Arabs, however, who have next to no voice whatsoever in mainstream America, according to Wilson and Gutiérrez, Ferguson, and Dines and Humez.
The bottom line is that recycling the same, tired formulaic storylines in U.S. film and television maintains the status quo in America. The dominant culture is convinced by the appearance of minorities on screen that racism has been overcome; as Artz stated, as long as the media continue show that Americans of all shades are cooperating with each other, the concerns of racism, assimilation, and cultural misrepresentation will go largely ignored.
Conclusion
In all, several American minorities, including but not limited to African Americans, Italian Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, Arabs, and Jews, are sorely underrepresented in the U.S. mass media. As a nation, our strength lies with the many diverse people that populate our country. In order to gain social awareness and tolerance for the many cultures that exist in the global economy that is the 21st century, in order to make strides towards a future of interracial understanding and cooperation, we must observe our duty to give a voice to all of our citizens, our fellow Americans.
Sources
Artz, B. L. Hegemony in Black and White: Interracial Buddy Films and the New Racism. Found in Kamalipour, Y. R. and Carilli, T. (1998). Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media. pp. 67-78. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Campbell, C. P. (1995). Race, Myth and the News. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
Carilli, T. Still Crazy After All These Years: Italian Americans in Mainstream U.S. Films. Found in Kamalipour, Y. R. and Carilli, T. (1998). Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media. pp. 111-123. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Dines, G. and Humez, J. M. (1995). Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
Entman, R. M. and Rojecki, A. (2000). The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Ferguson, R. (1998). Representing 'Race': Ideology, identity and the media. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.
Hilliard, R. L. (2001). Media, Education, and America's Counter-Culture Revolution: Lost and Found Opportunities for Media Impact on Education, Gender, Race, and the Arts. Westport: Ablex Publishing.
Holtzman, L. (2000). Media Messages: What Film, Television, and Popular Music Teach Us About Race, Class, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. New York: M. E. Sharp, Inc.
Morris, R. and Stuckey, M. E. Destroying the Past to Save the Present: Pastoral Voice and Native Identity. Found in Kamalipour, Y. R. and Carilli, T. (1998). Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media. pp. 137-147. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Orbe, M. P. et al. Ethnic Humor and Ingroup/Outgroup Positioning: Eplicating Viewer Perceptions of All-American Girl. Found in Kamalipour, Y. R. and Carilli, T. (1998). Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media. pp. 125-136. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Wilson II, C. C. and Gutiérrez, F. (1995). Race, Multiculturalism, and the Media: From Mass to Class Communication. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
Woodbury, M. Media Stereotypes of Jews: From JAPs to MDs. Found in Kamalipour, Y. R. and Carilli, T. (1998). Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media. pp. 99-109. Albany: State University of New York Press.